European Studies Essays (5384 words) - Economy Of The European Union

European Studies annon Discuss the relative merits/demerits of an agricultural policy oriented to price reform rather than one based upon structural reorganisation The common market shall extend to agriculture and trade in agricultural products. Agricultural products means the products of the soil, of stock-farming and of fisheries and products of first-stage processing directly related to these products....The operation and development of the common market for agricultural products must be accompanied by the establishment of a common agricultural policy among the Member States (1) From the beginning of the European Union, EU policy has given emphasis to the agricultural sector. To this end, a Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was established in 1963. (2) Provisions for this policy were made in the Treaty of Rome. The aims of this policy were to increase agricultural productivity, to ensure a fair standard of living for the agricultural community, to stabilise markets and to ensure reasonable prices for the consumer. (3) This is unusual in the context of the Treaty of Rome which provided for free trade and movement of resources. Agriculture was ill-adapted for this approach. Protection was given, not only by customs duties, but also by a variety of agricultural policies. This essay will discuss the merits and demerits of a the pre-1992 CAP with its emphasis on price reform, in comparison with the post-1992 CAP which was oriented to structural reform. It cannot be denied that there were merits of the pre-1992 price reform policy. There was a bountiful food supply with an increased variety and quantity of food. Farmers yields increased, particularly the large farmers. Producers were protected from the external market due to community preference and, therefore, domestic agriculture could develop. There were also spin offs in food production. Although some of the policies created good returns for farmers, the demerits of said policies far outweighed any advantages they had. The core-periphery divide was widened, quantity became more important than quality and consumers had to pay higher prices. Agricultural practices caused damage to the environment and international trading relations were strained. Until 1993 the EU rarely supported farmers by paying them direct subsidies from the taxpayers. (4) Instead the 30 billion ECU (and often more) was spent in the buying up of surplus commodities at minimum official prices and was also used to pay subsidies to traders to sell surpluses on the lower-priced world markets. (5) During the 1960s the price system was devised. The first problem with price policies is that of fluctuating and differing exchange rates. Green Money was the first solution to be developed to counter the problem of differing exchange rates. This, however, could be manipulated by politicians to achieve different price levels in the member states than those indicated by the common price level. The lowering of the green currency towards a depreciating average rate, raised farms price levels in the national currency. (6) This meant that while regular citizens suffered from the devaluation of the currency, farmers were protected from this trend. Also although the higher prices were an advantage for the farmer, they were a nuisance for consumers. Monetary Compensatory Amounts (MCAs) were used in the 1970s when devaluations by France and revaluations by Germany made Green Money redundant. MCAs operated as levies on the French exports and subsidies on French imports. The reverse was applied to Germany. (7) MCAs, while allowing Community trade to continue even though common pricing was never established, had more disadvantages than advantages. They allowed the real level of prices to vary from country to country. This led to the distortion of production as farmers in the countries which have strong currencies, were paid more than farmers in countries with a weak currency. MCAs are also expensive to operate. MCAs were replaced in 1979 by the European Currency Unit (ECU) as part of the European Monetary system (EMS) which had been introduced in 1978. (8) An agricultural ECU which was 14% more valuable than the ECU was introduced. Until 1993 and 1995, when adjustments were made to this, vast amounts of officials were needed every day to administer the agri-monetary system and the monetary amounts had to be changed weekly. (9) The original agricultural price policy in CAP had three main components. The first of these was the target price, which was the basis for establishing all other prices. It is meant to provide a satisfactory return for the farmer. Threshold prices are the minimum entry prices for imports (higher than EU prices for domestic products) and they also safeguard against the undercutting of target prices. An intervention price is used if the market prices fall. If surplus production occurs, the

TRAVELCOMFORT BUSINESS PLAN

TRAVELCOMFORT BUSINESS PLAN Executive Summary TravelComfort UK, Incorporated is a start-up travel agency that specializes in small and escorted luxury touring packages for its selective clients.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Travelcomfort business plan specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The agency is strategically located in Hill Gate Notting, London- to better serve its customers across the UK. This location has of late experienced rapid growth in the number of discriminating or selective luxury tour clients. TravelComfort is a partnership between 4 experienced travel scholars named as Josh Foster, Rochelle Night, Mike Manning and Joshua Awozele. The first 2, other than sitting on the board are also the company’s Chief Executive and Operations Manager respectively. The last 2 do not have additional managerial roles. The first 2 have had extensive training in travel business, especially in sales and marketing to oversee the operations of this new venture. Their knowledge will thus be useful in this starting period. Other than the 2 managerial staff, and the additional 2 board members, the company intends to use an independent sales force of 6 individuals to keep its overhead expenses low hence increasing its sales returns. The owners feel that this will be the surest way of maintaining profitability and its subsequent expansion in this highly competitive travel service industry.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In addition, the company will make use of the 4 marketing mix to market itself to its customers as well as establishing best relationships with agent travel firms. More so, to ensure that it achieves its profitability and expansion outcomes, the management intends to source for a long-term loan of UK pounds 60,000 from Standard Chartered Bank to finance its required start-up capital of appro ximately  £120,000. The company is characterized by a strong commitment to customer value, service and specialized luxury tour needs; characteristics that set it apart from other UK travel agencies thus constituting its best attractions and unique selling points. Market Research of the UK travel industry A research article by Tassiopoulos highlighted that though there had been a major trend towards responsible and ethical consumptions across UK’s consumer markets, the demand for services in the UK travel industry had risen to match those in other sectors, with tourism given as an example.1 This increase has also coincided with increases in consumer expectations across the country. To expound on this, this plan went ahead to stress that in each holiday, a significant and a growing number of travellers in the UK were looking for better and high quality products. As such, the experiences provided by tour and travel firms should be able to enable the traveller’s access à ¢â‚¬Ëœreal’ living cultures within or without their nations. Nonetheless, previous researches highlighted that though UK travellers had accustomed themselves to taking shorter trips in most cases, at the same time, they expected to derive more value from such short trips.2Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Travelcomfort business plan specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A scholarly study by Pfister and Tierney summarized the above notions by arguing that nowadays, holidays spender’s across the UK preferred ‘real’ holidays that were characterized with a lot of authenticity.3 These expectations contradicted the scenarios dating 10 years back in this same country. Supporting the above frameworks, Page and Connell combined their findings to assert that in the UK, there has emerged a growing interest in the pursuit of more adventurous forms of travel agencies.4 For instance, the demand for the market has of lately shifted to those agencies that offer specialized travel and tour services such as land based expeditions of the nature of the Graham Land as well as skiing activities. On the other hand, drawing inferences from the Independent on Sundays, the authors of this plan established that the recent economic recession has been a blessing to the UK tour travel industry. This is for the reason that the ever increasing economic recession has increased costs of overseas holidays by a high of 10%- 7% more than domestic holidays.5 This in return has meant that more Britons have preferred to spend their holidays in their country as a budgetary precaution. TravelComfort will strategically position itself to maximise on this great opportunity. To add, Hogson went ahead to review statistics that also revealed that the travel and tourism industries across the UK had for years pursued profits within flexible, unrestricted and fast-moving environments.6 This, according to Robinson had led to most travel agencies failing to establish monitoring systems and formal objectives. They instead chose to seize each opportunity as it came their way without considering its long term effect.7Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To address this, TravelComfort has established and stated its mission statements. This will in turn assist it to achieve its outcomes since the mission statements will be used as statements of guidance and reference. Specific Target Market The stiff competition in the UK tour and travel industry has created the impetus to clearly understand the specific and the ever changing needs of the differentiated customer groups.8 TravelComfort has studied the market and identified UK citizens especially the retired or working couples who would like to go for adventure as constituting its key target market. Other than those, the company will emphasis on corporate travellers (business conference travellers) and any other travellers from any part of the world. Unique Selling Points These were comprised by the following brief features, concepts and benefits that our clients were happy to associate with our branding. In line with the above, TravelComfort has positioned itself to cater for speciali zed clientele group in the UK. As such, the company will offer small-group, budgetary and luxury modes of adventure travel. These will mainly target UK clients with a small global market presence also targeted in the plan. TravelComfort seeks to have a competitive advantage over its rivals by small but more exclusive packaged tours. These will enable our few clients to receive immediate personal or special attention from our travel hosts. As we expand, we intend to cultivate this niche of one-on-one contact to catch and retain on all our potential clients. The company will also provide accurate, first-hand and instant information concerning all its services to its customers. This can be achieved through mass-messaging or emailing service to registered clients. Market size/growth trends According to the statistics by the UK Office for National Statistics, the financial year ending February 2011 saw a total of 84.6 million travellers visit or depart from UK (visitors to UK were 29.6 m illion while visits abroad by the region’s citizens was 55.0 million).9 This number of travellers a combined drop of 6% compared to the previous year. The reason cited for the drop in the number of visitors was the bad weather. Table 1 showing the number of visitors entering or leaving the UK (Souce: UK Office for National Statistics, 2011). Despite the reduction in the number of travellers, the projected market growth for the UK travel industry stands at 10%. Of the total market size, TravelComfort aims to garner at least 5% of the market by the end of second year of operation. Competitive Environment At present, competition has been intense in the retail travel agency industry in Europe.10 As such TravelComfort will face stiff competition from both external and internal travel agencies. In the case of internal competitors, the company will compete with Thomson Travel Group-UK’s largest tour operator and Going Places-UK’s second largest travel agency.11 Other than the two, internal competitors will also include online travel agencies such as eDreams, Ebookers, Expedia, Iglue, LastMinute and Key2Holidays amongst others. External competitors will comprise of CN Travel Touristic Group- Germany’s largest travel agency and TravelPlanners from USA amongst others. Of late, the UK travel industry has been characterised by constant fluctuations both in service quality and sum of service providers.12 We intend to capitalize on this and broaden our market share. The competitive edge of our company will see us attract and retain customers through provision of up-to-date and accurate information. The company will also offer competitive discounted prices to win on repetitive customers. More so, the company will make use of IT and avail online tickets to its clients. To achieve on the above, the company will rely on the efforts of its experienced founders and personnel. These have great experience in luxury retailing, offering travel, achieving high-net-worth and offering and providing personalized services. Company Description TravelComfort is a full-service travel agency offering full-line travel planning for all its customers. The agency links all business, recreational and adventure travellers with travelling and accommodation firms. As was earlier highlighted, this agency is a partnership between Josh Foster, Rochelle Night, Mike Manning, and Joshua Awozele-who cofounded the agency in January of 2012. The company is located at Office Complex, Nottingham Hill Gate- London. The objectives of the company are as follows: To achieve a profitable status within the first year To garner a 5% market share within the first 2 years To increase its workforce to 20 by the second year (January 2012) and appoint a full-time Business Manager to enhance sales operations Expand the company’s corporate sales by  £ 85,000 each month. This is to happen by the 6 month of the agency’s operation. Services provided The compa ny will provide primary travel services that include, but unlimited to, hotel arrangements, bus and airline ticketing, car rental arrangements, conference planning, charter and tour services, student or employee-tour services and vacation packages. If these services are sold online, the agency will attain a sales margin of 10%. However, this is expected to rise to 15% if they are sold through agents. Marketing Plans/Strategies The company will make use of the four aspects of marketing mix to sell its services to its customers. These are: Pricing strategies The company will offer competitive rates to make its services affordable to all classes of people. In addition, the company will offer a 10% discount to the second ticket purchased by the same consumer. This will attract repetitive consumers to the agency thus increasing its market share. Promotion/Advertising strategies These will focus on the following: Buying ‘space’ in the UK daily newspapers for promotional adve rts on the agency’s services Creating a website where clients will be able search and review their services. The site will then allow them to make online reservations. This site will also be hyper-linked to social networking sites and other travel sites Distributing brochures or posters to strategic places to sell company services Product/ Service strategies The company has already achieved this strategy by incorporating a variety of services within service line. Distribution strategies The company intends to distribute some of its operations for instance, by using agents to market its services. Operational plans TravelComfort will ‘purchase’ its services from the above listed service companies using the following procedure: The company’s Operation’s Manager (Mr Night) will be tasked with negotiating with service industries on the awarding of service agency contacts. In this case, the agency will target to be awarded a commission of 10% on each tic ket (in this case service) sold. The company will then strive to sell more to improve on its profitability. The company intends to sell its services by using its other six sales-representative employees. These employees will improve service efforts by delivering tickets and making telephone follow-ups on their return. These will garner repeat sales and businesses. Besides their coordination, the 2 partners will perform initial sales management until the hiring of the Business Development Manager. Sales forecast The company targets to have sold services worth  £2,516,430 by end of 2012 and  £4, 50,100 by end of 2013 and 8,000,000 in the third year of 2014. This plan is based on the service arrangements to be increased between the agency and its partners. The following table 2 summarises the sales, gross and net profit’s highlights. The values are all in ‘0000 TravelComforts Projected Highlights Sales G/P margin Net Profit Margin Yr 1  £250  £80  £15 Y ear2  £450  £125  £45 Yr 3  £800  £225  £12 To achieve the forecasted sales above, the following sales programs are to be implemented: Issuing sales awards to those sales representatives who will be the top four in terms of highest grossing sales Issuing awards to employees who excel in delivering exemplary tour services to Travel comfort clients. This will create a scenario of retaining and attracting clients hence increasing the sales. The firm intends to implement e-commerce by allowing on-site ticket sales and registration through its Computerised Reservation System. This will ease the process of acquiring or accessing the firm’s services hence increasing the number of discriminative clients. Related to the above, the management intends to position customer care agents in its London office to carry out the role of selling tickets through the phone mode. The firm’s marketing and ticketing services are also to be re-distributed across key attraction points (a scenario commonly called sales retailing) across London to win on the potential passers-by who can top up as its customers. For instance, off-site sales are to be carried out at hired sites. For instance, the management plans to engage stadium managers across the UK to catch on the increased spectator audience. This is so because the management carried an earlier research that proved that spectators in the VIP ticketing category were likely to form a special group for the specialized tour services across London. Break-even analysis The levels of sales need to service all personal requirements and costs will be calculated as follows: Sales (required to break even) =  £ (Business Survival Budget/Drawings + Overheads/Operating Expenses) Sales=  £300,000 +  £400,000=  £700,000 TravelComfort’s Monthly Break-even points Figure1 depicting the break-even analysis From the above figure, it is projected the company will break even half-way through the third month. At this time, the company will have required to have sold an estimated â‚ ¬ 700,000 meet its personal requirements (drawings) and all its costs comfortably. Key Personnel Mr. Josh Foster- Company’s Chief Executive Mr. Foster is one of the co-founders of the agency. Having graduated with a distinction in Business Management, Sales and Marketing, he will spearhead the company’s growth. His strength to multi-task across dynamic environments will see him represent the agency at key stakeholder conferences. He will also spearhead the agency’s expansion module. Mr. Rochelle Night-Operations Manager Mr. Night will coordinate all agency operations. His leadership skills will ensure that a link exists between the sales representatives and the customers. He intends to maximise on his supervisory role at Easyjet Travel Agency to implement his new duties. Other than the two above, the following also topped up as Travel Comfort’s board members: Critical risks of the venture The following risks were identified as potential risks associated with this venture. Emerging travel agency businesses that were likely to cause stiff competition. The financial crisis that was likely to cause shifts in consumer demands (consumers were likely to reduce on their leisure expenditures). The company was likely to lose contact with some of foreign customers. Contingency planning The following measures will be implemented to safeguard the performance of the venture if sales reduce by more than 5% as projected. The management will carry out reviews to determine if the forecasts were realistic. If they were not, new estimates will be forecasted based on the sales statistics at hand. In this case, the last trading period’s actual results will be projected for achievable targets to be determined. If the forecasts were real, the management will review its budget to obtain a realistic one. In this case, the management will determine the expenses to be r educed and the margins to e improved. In this case the pro-forma revenues will be decreased by a realistic percentage based on the conditions facing the company. Having implemented the above, the company will carry out the following actions to improve on its performance: Carry out an aggressive promotion to increase its service awareness. Establish reward schemes for its sales team to motivate them in reaching more consumers. For instance, by rewarding employees who surpass a weekly target of  £ 20,000 with a 15% commission Likewise, the company willl try to re-negotiate its contracts with its partners. In this case, the management will point out the difficulties facing the travel agency and request a re-view of the engagements on mutual basis. Offering/ Funding The following table summarized the company’s start-up summary Item(s) Description Total amount Expenses Office supplies, rent, consultant’s fees, utilities, insurance, internet charges, website creation charges, communication bill etc  £80,000 Assets Furniture, cash, computers etc  £ 120,000 Owners’ Contributions Primarily cash  £ 150,000 Loans/ Borrowing From Standard Chartered Bank  £ 200,000 Total start-up funding  £ 550,000 Financial Plan Profit Loss Account The following is the profit and Loss account (projected for the first three years). Note: All figures are in  £. Year1 Year 2 Year 3 Sales (Direct and Indirect) 2,516,430 4,110, 345 5, 815,100 Less cost of sales 1, 910, 000 3, 515, 650 4, 910, 000 Gross profit 606,430 594,695 905, 100 Less Expenses 450,130 480,520 520,000 Pre-tax net income 156, 300 114,175 385, 100 Taxes Paid 18,900 11, 600 41, 200 Net income 137,400 102,575 343,900 Pro-forma Balance Sheet The following balance sheet has also been projected for the first three years. Balance Sheet (projected for the 1st three years) Note: All figures are in  £. Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Total Current Assets 450,000 4 20, 500 455, 100 Total Long-term Assets 150,000 214,000 139, 900 Total Assets 600,000 634,100 595,000 Current liabilities 250,000 242, 100 245,000 Long-term liabilities 200,000 112,000 0 Total Liabilities 450,000 354, 100 245,000 Total Capital 150,000 280,000 350,000 Total Capital and Liabilities 600,000 634,100 595,000 Reference List Doganis, R, Flying off course: the economics of international airlines, 3rd edition, Routledge, Newyork, 2002. Hogson, A, The travel and tourism industry: strategies for the future, CABI Publisher, Oxford, 1987. Horne, S J, Swarbrooke, Leisure marketing: a global perspective, Butterworth-Heinemann, UK, 2005. Independent on Sundays, Recession ‘is good news for UK travel industry’, 2008. Web. Needham, A, Business for higher awards, Heinemann, UK, 1999. Evans, N, Strategic management for travel and tourism, Butterworth-Heinemann, UK. Page, S Connell, J, Tourism: A modern synthesis, 2nd edn., PublisherCengage Learning EMEA, Stamford, 2006. Pfister, R Tierney, P, Recreation, event, and tourism businesses: start-up and sustainable operations, Human Kinetics, Leeds, UK, 2008. Plunkett, J W, Plunketts airline, hotel travel industry Almanac 2007: Airline, hotel travel industry market research, statistics, trends leading companies, Plunkett Research, Ltd., Texas, 2006. Robinson, P, Operations Management in the Travel Industry, CABI, Oxford, 2009. Tassiopoulos, D, New tourism ventures: an entrepreneurial and managerial approach, Juta and Company Ltd, Cape Town, South Africa, 2009. UK Office for National Statistics, Travel and tourism: Overseas visits still subdued, 2011, retrieved https://www.ons.gov.uk/. Footnotes 1 D Tassiopoulos, New tourism ventures: an entrepreneurial and managerial approach, Juta and Company Ltd, Cape Town, South Africa, 2009, p.309. 2 J W Plunkett, Plunketts airline, hotel travel industry Almanac 2007: Airline, hotel travel industry market research, statistics, trends leading co mpanies, Plunkett Research, Ltd., Texas, 2006, p.62. 3 R Pfister, P Tierney, Recreation, event, and tourism businesses: start-up and sustainable operations, Human Kinetics, Leeds, UK, 2008. 4 S Page J Connell, Tourism: A modern synthesis, 2nd edn., Cengage Learning EMEA, Stamford, 2006, p.81. 5 Independent on Sundays, Recession ‘is good news for UK travel industry’, 2008. 6 A Hogson, The travel and tourism industry: strategies for the future, CABI Publisher, Oxford, 1987. 7 P Robinson, Operations management in the travel Industry, CABI, Oxford, 2009, p. 254. 8 A Needham, Business for higher awards, Heinemann, UK, 1999, p.19. 9 UK Office for National Statistics, Travel and tourism: Overseas visits still subdued, 2011. 10 S, Horne J, Swarbrooke, Leisure marketing: a global perspective, Butterworth-Heinemann, UK, 2005, p. 233. 11 R Doganis, Flying off course: the economics of international airlines, 3rd edition, Routledge, Newyork, 2002, p.159. 12 N Evans, Strategic man agement for travel and tourism, Butterworth-Heinemann, UK, pp. 172-177.

Social Performances of Shell Company Research Paper

Social Performances of Shell Company - Research Paper Example Royal Dutch/Shell Group of Companies is one of the largest global groups of energy and petrochemicals companies with around 101,000 employees in more than  90 countries and territories. Shell is expanding rapidly to other countries and they have almost monopolized the global energy market with their huge financial capabilities and resources. Most of the Shell companies are operating independently in each of the countries by the people who know the needs of the community and the environment well. They have the authority and autonomy to make all normal business decisions. One of the major success factors of Shell Company is their respect to the community in which they operate. Unlike many other corporate giants, Shell is keen in spending a portion of their profit for the wellbeing of the society or community in which they operate. Moreover, they are giving more emphasis to the environment protection. Social performance is accepted as the core of their business strategy for sustainable development.Most of the big companies declare their corporate social responsibility and these declarations often lie on paper alone. On the other hand, Shell is not like that. They don’t have much belief in public declarations and they don’t like the publicity for their actions. They are normally done things with least publicity compared to other big companies. Shell company has reportedly paid approximately $36 billion in taxes and royalties from 2005-2008 to the Nigerian government which can be used to promote development, reduce poverty and support econ omic growth4. It is a well-known fact that Nigeria is a poor country which is struggling to find enough resources to eradicate poverty.  Ã‚  

Cross of Gold Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cross of Gold - Research Paper Example While the majority of the politicians were more concerned with helping those that funded their campaigns, Bryan was among the very few who were truly concerned for the well-being of his potential voters. He fought for them diligently, knowing that by not allowing silver to be used as currency, people would be pushed over the edge as they would further feel the strain of their out-of-control debts. However, the other politicians wanted gold to remain the only currency, which would mean that citizens would never be able to get out of debt. While silver would mean rampant inflation, it would also increase the nation’s prosperity and provide a quicker solution to the nation’s debt. Unfortunately, gold was the ideal currency for bankers and businesses as there would be no inflation to harm them, and they were reluctant to see it set aside for silver. Bryan was not bothered by the strong stances held by bankers, businessmen, and the politicians who were pro-gold. If anything, Bryan was baffled that politicians, the economy, and citizens alike could greatly benefit from using silver as legal tender, yet still have many people against using silver. Though the arguments against silver could hardly be debated, Bryan felt that the needs of the citizens, â€Å"the struggling masses, who produce the wealth and pay the taxes of the country,†2 especially the farmers, were more important than the greed of bankers and businessmen. Bryan’s famous speech was spoken completely on behalf of the citizens that needed the financial relief, impressing the importance of adding silver to the legal tender that included gold, stating that politicians â€Å"shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold†3. It was Bryan who made it clear the kind of damage that could be caused by not allowing silver to be circulated as legal tender.à ‚  

Degrading Marine Bacteria: Isolation and Characterization

Degrading Marine Bacteria: Isolation and Characterization Isolation and Characterization of (PAH) Biodegrading Marine Bacteria Sulaiman Ali Alharbi1*, M.E.Zayed1, Arunachalam Chinnathambi1, Naiyf S. Alharbi1 and Milton Wainwright1,2 ABSTRACT Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are considered to be important and dangerous pollutants which cause serious health problems and/or genetic defects in humans, as well as harming the flora and fauna of affected habitats. In this study, we interested in determining if bacteria can be successfully used to bioremediate PAH pollution as an alternative to physical and chemical methods. The bacteria used in this study were isolated from three PAH polluted sites of Mediterranean Sea, off Alexandria, Egypt. The study is devoted to the isolation of bacteria that can degrade three low molecular weight PAHs and to determine the effect of pH on this process. Nine phenanthrene-degrading, seven-naphthalene-degrading and eight anthracene-degrading bacteria were isolated, by enrichment, from the marine water sample. All of the isolates grew on the PAHs (phenanthrene, anthracene and naphthalene) at varying rates and utilized them as sole source of carbon and energy. Key words:   Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), Biodegrading marine bacteria, Environmental contamination, Marine water, Introduction Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are contaminants of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems which generated continuously by the inadvertently incomplete combustion of organic matter, for instance in forest fires, home heating, traffic, and waste incineration1. PAHs constitute a large and diverse class of organic compounds and are generally described as molecules which consist of three or more fused aromatic rings in various structural configurations2. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are composed of fused, aromatic rings whose biochemical persistence arises from dense clouds of Ï€-electrons on both sides of the ring structures, thereby making them resistant to nucleophilic attack3. Environments contaminated with PAHs are deemed hazardous because of their carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic effects4,5 and low molecular weight PAHs such as naphthalene (the simplest, containing two benzene rings), anthracene and phenanthrene (both of which contain three benzene rings) are also known to possess potentially hazardous health effects6. A variety of techniques have been applied to the treatment of environments contaminated by PAH containing petroleum hydrocarbons, notably physical treatments using thermal or chemical processes7. However, these treatments are generally time consuming and expensive8,9. Microbial bioremediation however, provides a potentially cheap and effective means of bio-remediating PAH-contaminated environments10. The ability of microorganisms to degrade PAHs is well documented11, 12 and microbial degradation is a major environmental process affecting the fate of PAHs in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems13. Bioremediation using microbes converts toxic or persistent organic molecules into harmless end products, such as carbon dioxide and water 14. Unfortunately PAHs possess physical properties, such as low aqueous solubility and high solid water distribution ratios, which militate against their rapid microbial utilization resulting in their accumulation in the terrestrial and aquatic environments1. It is imperative therefore that the factors which influence the bioavailability and decomposition of PAHs in the environment be studied and optimized7. The aim of the work described here was to screening environmental samples for bacteria that are capable of degrading PAHs and use them a sole carbon and energy source. Materials and Methods Isolation of bacteria: Bacteria were isolated from three PAH-polluted sites of the Mediterranean Sea, Alexandria, Egypt, where PAH pollutants have been continually released. All isolates were preserved in 750 ÃŽ ¼l LB culture supplemented with 250 ÃŽ ¼l of 60% glycerol and maintained at -80oC. Media used: Bushnell-Haas (BH) medium, Luria-Bertani, Nutrient broth and Blood agar were used for the isolation of bacteria. All media were prepared using distilled water and sterilized by autoclaving at 120oC for 20 min. Medium- pH was adjusted as required before sterilization using   1N NaOH or 1N HCl. Hydrocarbon stock solutions: Stock solutions of each PAH (100 mg/ml) were prepared in ethyl acetate and sterilized by filtration. Isolation of phenanthrene, anthracene and naphthalene degrading bacteria: Water samples were collected from three PAH-polluted sites in the Mediterranean Sea, off Alexandria, Egypt, where PAH pollutants have been continually released into these aquatic environments without any control. Water samples (50ml) were collected from the contaminated sites under aseptic conditions. Phenanthrene, anthracene and naphthalene degrading bacteria were isolated from water samples by spreading onto solid medium; 100  µl of each water sample was spread over the surface Bushnell-Haas agar plates containing (100, 200, 300, 400, 500 and 600 mg/l) of either, phenanthrene, anthracene or naphthalene, as the sole carbon and energy source. The plates were then incubated at 30oC for 7 days. Assay of phenanthrene, anthracene and naphthalene degradation: Phenanthrene, anthracene and naphthalene degradation by the bacteria under a variety of concentrations was determined using 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks containing 100 ml Bushnell-Haas broth supplemented with phenanthrene, anthracene and naphthalene in the concentration range,10, 30, 50, 70, 90, 130 to 150 mg/l.. The cultures were inoculated by transferring 1 ml of nutrient broth of pre culture medium of the strain under test. The cultures were then incubated at 30oC and 200 rpm; bacterial growth was daily evaluated by measuring the increase of OD600nm of the culture. Determination of naphthalene, phenanthrene and anthracene residues in the culture medium: The concentration of naphthalene and phenanthrene residues in the culture medium was determined by measuring the optical density at a wavelength of 254 nm and 275 nm respectively15. Extraction was carried out in a separator funnel, by mixing for two minutes an aliquot of the culture medium with an equal volume of hexane. The resulting organic phase was then used for the spectrophotometric readings. In some cases the sample was diluted with hexane in order to bring it out within the range of the calibration line (0.01-0.07 mg/ml for naphthalene and 0.001-0.1 mg/ml for phenanthrene). For the determination of anthracene residue, aliquots of the culture medium were mixed for two minutes with an equal volume of ethyl acetate and the optical density of the resulting organic phase was measured at a wavelength of 254 nm using ethyl acetate as a blank. For preparation of standard curve of anthracene, a stock solution of 10 ppm in ethyl acetate was prepared and aliquots in the range of 0.2 to 1 ppm were separately measured at 254 nm16. Utilization of carbon source: All purified isolates were tested for growth on 0.01%, of either, naphthalene, phenanthrene, anthracene or phenol which were added as sole carbon sources to BH liquid medium. Sterilized BH medium containing the desired amount of hydrocarbon source was inoculated with the test strain and incubated in an orbital shaker at 200 rpm and 30oC for 72 h. Growth was tested by measuring the increase of OD600nm of the cultures. Effect of pH on the degradation of naphthalene, phenanthrene and anthracene: In order to determine the effect of pH on naphthalene, phenanthrene and anthracene degradation, 50 ml of BH broth cultures were first prepared at the following pH; 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11. After sterilization, 50 mg/l naphthalene, phenanthrene and anthracene was added to each flask, separately. 0.5 ml of Nutrient Broth overnight culture of bacterial strains (OD600 1.3-1.5) was added to each flask. The flasks were incubated at 30oC and 200 rpm for 72h. Bacterial growth was estimated using spectrophotometer at OD600nm of the cultures. Results and Discussion Isolation and selection of phenanthrene, naphthalene and anthracene biodegrading bacteria: Phenanthrene, naphthalene and anthracene degrading bacteria were isolated from water samples.   A range of bacterial colony types were observed on the different carbon source-containing plates, nine isolates were found to utilize phenanthrene, seven   grew on the naphthalene plates and eight isolates grew on anthracene amended media. Isolates Ph1, Ph2, Ph3, Ph4, Ph5 and Ph7 showed the ability to degrade phenanthrene as sole carbon sorce. The optical density (OD600)   for the bacterial isolates respective was was; 0.16, 0.512, 0.17, 0.482, 0.632 and 0.24. Isolates Ph6, Ph8 and Ph9 on the otherhand failed to utilize phenanthrene as sole carbon and energy source (Fig.1). Among the tested isolates only Ph5 isolate showed sustantial   growth rate on phenanthrene when compared with other tested isolates. According to the ioslates which showed no degrdation of the tetsed PAH, We assume that these isolates which did not degrade PAH may have lost this ability during preservation, or may have lost genes which control the utilization of this substrate; assumptions mirored in the work of   Zhao, et al., (2009)17, who reported that some phenanthrene degrading isolates lost their ability to degrade phenanthrene after a period of more than three weeks of preservation. Figure 1. Degradation of phenanthrene (20 mgl) by 9 bacterial isolates (named; Ph1-Ph9).       In studies using naphthalene, only two isolates Na6 and Na7 showed dehradation   with the latter being the best naphthalene degrader (Fig.2). The other isolates, Na1, Na2, Na3, Na4 and Na5, in contrast, failed to use naphthalene as a sole carbon and energy source. Regarding the anthracene-degarding isolates, five- An1, An2, An3, An4 and An7 degraded the substrate with ODs respectively oft: 0.174, 0.614, 0.551, 0.482 and 0.164 (Fig.3). Isolate,   An2 isolate was the msot active anthracene degrader,while isolates An5, An6 and An8 were unable   to use anthracene as a sole source carbon and energy source. Figure 2.   Degradation of naphthalene (20 mgl) by 7 bacterial isolates (named; Na1-Na7). Figure 3. Degradation of anthracene (20 mgl) by the bacterial isolates (named; An1-An8). Effect of pH on hydrocarbons degradation by the different bacterial isolates: The effect of pH (2.0, 3.0, 4.0,   up to 11.0) on PAH degradation by the isolated bacteria Ph5, Na7 and An2 was investigated in BH medium containing 50 mgl phenanthrene and 20 mgl naphthalene or anthracene respectively. In the case of phenanthrene, the optimum pH for bacterial growth and phenanthrene degradation was pH 7. At pH 6 and pH 8, bacterial growth and substrate degradation was markedly reduced (Fig.4). Shin et al.,(2008)18 reported that, relatively high mineralization rates of phenanthrene are found over a pH range of 6-8, with maximum mineralization rate occurring at pH 6 in a mineral salt medium. In the present study we found that the pH 7 is the optimum for obtaining a high mineralization rate of phenanthrene in BH medium; in agreement with Simarro, et al., (2011)19, our results confirm that the optimal pH value for the degradation of this substrate,   in BH medium, is pH7. Figure 4. The ability of the selected Ph5 isolate to degrade 50 mg/l phenanthrene at different pH. Growth and biodegradation depends on the type of PAHs used and the optimum pH range is very variable20. Some acid resistant Gram-positive bacteria, such as Mycobacterium sp., show better PAH degradation capabilities under acid conditions, largely because low pH seems to render such Mycobacteria more permeable to hydrophobic substrates21. However, other microorganisms belonging to Pseudomonas genus tend to prefer neutral pH conditions. In agreement with previous works19, our results confirm that neutral pH is optimum for the biodegradation of PAHs. Our results are also in agreement with Bisht, et al.(2010)22, who reported the ability of D. radiodurans SBA6 and B. circulans SBA12 to degrade naphthalene and anthracene over in the pH range of 5.0 to 11 (Fig.5). Othman et al.(2009)23 observed that changes in media pH can alter the electrical charge on various chemicals groups in enzymes molecules, thereby probably altering the enzymes ability to bind its substrate and catalyze a given rea ction. Imbalance of the electrical charges in very acidic and alkali conditions can also disrupt hydrogen bonds and other weak forces that maintain enzyme structure. Such disruption of enzyme structure is called denaturation, a phenomenon which leads to poor rates of biodegradation. Figure 5. Determination of the ability of Na7 and An2 isolate to degrade 20 mg/l naphthalene and anthracene respectively, over a range of pH. Utilization of different hydrocarbons by the same bacterium: Phenol (a single ring compound) was also included in this experiment as an example of a low molecular weight PAHs to provide a comparison with the high molecular weights hydrocarbons e.g. naphthalene (two rings), anthracene, and phenanthrene (both three compounds). Isolate Ph5 was shown to use phenol, naphthalene and anthracene as sole carbon and energy source (Fig.6). These results are slightly different from those reported by Zhao, et al. (2009)17, who reported that a bacterial isolate (ZP2) was able to degrade phenanthrene and naphthalene but failed to degrade anthracene as sole carbon source. Figure 6. Assimilation of 0.01% of naphthalene, anthracene and phenol as a sole   carbon source in Bushnell-Haas medium by Ph5 isolate. The same response was seen in the other two isolates Na7 and An2.   Isolate, Na7 rapidly mineralized phenol, phenanthrene and anthracene when added as sole carbon sources (Fig.7). Isolate An2 degraded phenol, naphthalene and phenanthrene as sole sources of energy (Fig.8). An isolate used in a study by Dean-Ross, et al. (2001)24 in contrasts was able to mineralize anthracene and phenanthrene but not naphthalene when grown under identical conditions. Figure 7. Utilization of 0.01% of phenanthrene, anthracene and phenol as a sole   carbon source in Bushnell-Haas medium by the isolate Na7. Figure 8. Consumption of 0.01% of phenanthrene, naphthalene and phenol as a sole   carbon source in Bushnell-Haas medium by An2 isolate. Phenanthrene, naphthalene and anthracene are the main components of crude oil and ubiquitous in contaminated water and soil. These carbon-sources could be utilized by a range of living in these polluted environments. Hydrocarbon mineralization occurs in a variety of ways depending on the species of bacterium isolated and it use of a preferred pathway. In this study, the wide range carbon-source utilization of tested isolates confirms their ability to use potentially different degradation pathways. Al-Thani, et al.(2009)25, similarly reported that the acclimation of a microbial community to one substrate frequently results in the simultaneous acclimation to some, but not all structurally related molecules. As a result, individual microbial species have the ability to act on several structurally similar substrates and therefore more easily act on their analogues following initial exposure26,27. Conclusion: In this investigation, we fascinated in determining if bacteria can be successfully used to bioremediate PAH pollution as a substitute to physical and chemical methods.In conclusion, some of our isolates grew well on the tested 4 low molecular weight organic aromatic compounds and as also reported28, individual bacterial strains could degrade several PAHs, but tended to prefer a single one and also we establish that the pH 7 is the optimum for obtaining a high mineralization rate of phenanthrene in BH medium. Acknowledgements Authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University for funding the work through the research group project No. RGP-VPP-332. References 1Johnsen, A. R., Wick, L. Y. and Harms, H. 2005.Principles of microbial PAH-degradation in soil. Environ. Pollut. 133(1):71-84. 2Blumer, M. 1976. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in nature. Sci. Am. 234:35-45. 3Nnamchi, C. I., Obeta, J. A. N. and Ezeogu, L. I. 2006.Isolation and characterization of some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degrading bacteria from Nsukka soils in Nigeria. Int. J. Environ. Sci.Tech. 3:181-190. 4Miller, E. C. and Miller, J. A. 1974.Biochemical mechanisms of chemical carcinogenesis. Edited by Busch, H. The Molecular Biology of Cancer, New York: Academic Press, pp.377-403. 5Autrup, H. 1990.Carcinogen metabolism in cultured human tissues and cells. Carcinogen. 11: 707-712. 6Klaasen, C. D. 2001. Casarett and Doulls Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.107-132. 7Piskonen, R. and Itavaara, M. 2004. Evaluation of Chemical Pretreatment of Contaminated Soil for Improved PAH Bioremediation. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 65: 627-634. 8Leahy, J.G. and Colwell, R.R. 1990. Microbial Degradation of Hydrocarbons in the Environ. Microbiol. Rev. 54: 305-315. 9Ward, W., Singh, A. and Van Hamme, J. 2003.Accelerated biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbon waste. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 30: 260-270. 10Phillips, T.M., Liu, D., Seech, A.G., Lee, H and Trevors, J.T. 2000. Monitoring bioremediation in creosote contaminated soils using chemical analysis and toxicity tests. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 24: 132-139. 11Churchill, S. A., Harper, J. P. and Churchill, P. F. 1999. Isolation and characterization of a Mycobacterium species capable of degrading three-and four ring aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:549-52. 12Weissenfels, W. D., Beyer, M., Klein, J. and Rehm H. J. 1991. Microbial metabolism of fluoranthene: isolation and identification of ring fission products. Appl. Microbiol. 34:528-535. 13Supaka, N., Pinphanichakarn, P., Pattaragulwanit, K., Thaniyavarn, S., Omori, T. and Juntongjin, K.2001. Isolation and characterization of a phenanthrene- degrading Sphingomonas sp. strain P2 and its ability to degrade fluoranthene and pyrene via cometabolism. Sci. Asia. 27: 21-28. 14Lee, S. and Cutright, T. J. 1996. Nutrient medium for the bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil. US Patent. 5, 508, 194. 15Marta, I., Alquati, C., Morgia, P., Mansi, A., Scotti, R., Nicolini, L. and Papacchini, M. 2006.Contaminated sites: assessment of the metabolism, growth and genetic characterization of wild-type microbial strains able to degrade naphthalene. Prevention Today. 2: 35-50. 16Kumar, G., Singla, R. and Kumar, R. 2010. Plasmid associated anthracene degradation by Pseudomonas sp. isolated from filling station site. Natur. and Sci. 8: 89-94. 17Zhao, H. P., Wu, Q. S., Wang, L., Zhao, X. T. and Gao, H. W. 2009. Degradation of phenanthrene by bacterial strain isolated from soil in oil refinery fields in Shanghai, China. J. Hazard. Mater. 164: 863-869. 18Shin, K., Kim, J. and Kim, K. 2008.Effect of biosurfactant addition on the biodegradation of phenanthrene in soil-water system. Environ. Eng. Res. 13: 8-13. 19Simarro, R., Gonzalez, N., Bautista, L. F., Sanz, R. and Molina, M. C. 2011. Optimization of key abiotic factors of PAH (naphthalene, phenanthrene and anthracene) biodegradation process by a bacterial consortium. Water Air Soil Pollut. 217: 365-374. 20Dibble, J.R. and Bartha, R. 1979.Effect of environmental parameters on the biodegradation of oil sludge. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37: 729-739. 21Kim, Y.H., Freeman, J.P., Moody, J.D., Engesse, K.H. and Cerniglia, C.E. 2005.Effects of pH on the degradation of phenanthrene and pyrene by Mycobacterium vanbaalenii PYR-1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67: 275-285. 22Bisht, S., Pandey, P., Sood, A., Sharma, S. and Bisht, N. S. 2010.Biodegradation of naphthalene and anthracene by chemo-tactically active rhizobacteria of Populus deltoides. Braz. J. Microbiol. 41: 922-930. 23Othman, N., Hussain, N.H., Abd Karim, A.T. and Abdul-Talib, S. 2009.Isolation and optimization of napthalene degradative bacteria. International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure and Built Environment in Developing Countries. Bandung, West Java, Indonesia.101-105. 24Dean-Ross, D., Moody, J. D., Freeman, J. P., Doerge, D. R. and Cerniglia, C. E. 2001.Metabolism of anthracene by Rhodococcus species. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 204: 205-211. 25Al-Thani, R.F., Abd-El-Haleem, D.A.M. and Al-Shammri, M. 2009.Isolation and characterization of polyaromatic hydrocarbons-degrading bacteria from different Qatari soils. African J. of Microbiol. Resear. 3: 761-766. 26Bauer, J. and Capone, D. 1985. Degradation and mineralization of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons anthracene and naphthalene in inter tidal marine sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 50: 81-90. 27Mitchell, J. and Cain, R. 1996. Rapid onset of the accelerated degradation of dicarboximide. Pesticides Sci. 48: 1-11. 28Tadros, M. G. and Hughes, J. B. 1997. Degradation of polycyclic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by indigenous mixed and pure cultures isolated from coastal sediments. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 63(65): 865-870 Can Liberty and Equality be Reconciled in Political Theory? Can Liberty and Equality be Reconciled in Political Theory? The word reconcile means that, to find a way in which two situations or beliefs that are opposed to each other can agree and exist together. It is sometimes difficult to reconcile for instance science and religion. When two people are reconciled they become friendly again after they have argued, (Cambridge advanced learners dictionary). In this essay I will dwell much on whether liberty and equality can be reconciled by defining these concepts. Liberty and freedom are often used interchangeably, however they essentially mean the ability to think or act as one wishes. Gerald McCallum: â€Å"Freedom is always of something (an agent or agents) to do or not to do, become or not become something†. Most political theorists assume that people ought to be free unless there are compelling reasons for restricting their freedom. For instance J.S.Mill believes that, to be human is to enjoy a sphere of in which one is able to think, express ideas and lead a lifestyle of one’s own choosing. He went on to say, â€Å"even if a person finds himself in an opinion, he should be free to express that opinion† and â€Å"if all mankind, minus one, were of one opinion, and only one person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would not be justified to silence that person, than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind† By allowing individuals to be free, society can progress, hence the ideas of mi nimal government and protection of human rights and freedoms. There are two concepts of liberty, these includes negative and positive liberty (Isaiah Berlin, 958). Negative liberty involves response to the question: what is the area within which the subject a person or group of persons is or should be left to do what he is able to do or be, without interference by other people. It implies freedom of choice, therefore, Law and Government should only serve to enlarge and not restrict freedoms, and privacy of the individual must be respected by recognizing a clear distinction between what is public and what is private and finally it advocates individual rationality as the basis for choice. On the other hand, positive liberty is involved in the answer to the question: what or who is the source of control or interference that can determine someone to do or be, also interested in the question ‘By whom am I governed?’ However, as opposed to â€Å"How much am I governed? G.C. Mc Callum, (1972). According to T.H. Green it means personal gr owth and self-development. Liberalism is one of the dominant political ideologies of the contemporary world that favors liberty in terms of equality. It is founded on the traditional notions of individualism: this reflects the belief in the supreme importance of the human individual as opposed to any social group or collective body. The liberal goal is therefore to create a society within which individuals can flourish and prosper with everyone pursing what they consider as good in any way they choose to define it. Therefore, individual freedoms or liberties are given priority over notions of equality, justice and authority. It is thus based on the presumption that freedom is a good thing and that any limitations of the same should be justified. It is strongly against limitation on freedom of individuals to pursue self interest. It however, favors private property and free enterprise, for instance freedom to buy and sell anything. And finally it is against state control and seconds that role of the state limit ed to maintaining law and order, in this respect, it should provide defense and oversee enforcement of contracts. Equality refers to the belief that human beings are born having equal rights. The Declaration of Independence asserts some of these rights to be life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Equality is not about blanket uniformity but rather to establish the legal, political or social conditions in which people will be able to enjoy equally worthwhile and satisfying lives. The principle of equality sometimes contains the assertion that people must have equal access to wealth and property in order for them to more fully realize the principle of equality. According to Oxford English Dictionary, equality implies the condition of having equal dignity, rank or privilege with others, the condition of being equal in power, ability, achievement of excellence, fairness, impartiality, due proportion, and proportionateness. Therefore, this term is defined in the light of equal conditions guaranteed to each for making the best of him. In the words of Barker, it implies that â€Å"whatever conditions are guaranteed to me in the form of rights, shall also, and in the same measure, be guaranteed to others and that whatever rights are given to others shall also be given to me†. So says Laski: undoubtedly, it implies fundamentally a leveling process. It means that no man shall be so placed in society that he can over-reach his neighbor to the extent which constitutes a denial of the latter’s citizenship†, J.J. Rousseau [(1762) 1969]. There are two forms of equality positive and negative. Positive form implies the adequate provision of opportunities for all. Here, the term ‘adequate opportunities’ does not mean ‘equal opportunities’. Since people differ in their needs and capacities and also in their efforts, they need different opportunities for their individual self-development, Friedrich Hayek and Keith Joseph (1979). Negative equality implies the absence of undue privileges. That is to say there should be no artificial grounds of discrimination, such as of religion, color, race, caste, wealth, sex, and many more. The underlying principle being that no talent should suffer from frustration for want of encouragement. It is still a challenge to provide a coherent defense of equality. This however requires separating out the various principles, and explaining what it is that is being equalized or equality is in danger of degenerating into a mere political slogan unless it is possible to a nswer the question ‘equality of what’?: is it income, or well being, the capacity to acquire certain goods, or something else? Socialism is also one of the dominant ideologies of the modern world that favors equality than liberty. Socialists believe in a Common Ownership: this relates to the ownership of property in the community as opposed to individual ownership. The argument here is that by placing property in joint community ownership, the common good is promoted rather than the good of individuals. To them a positive view of freedom must be examined in a social context and therefore in the context of resources of a material kind. The right to read and write, for example, requires the provision of schooling if such a right is to be meaningful. In the Socialist World Order all classes and private property are abolished. The means of production for instance, that is all land, machinery, factories and other productive resources must be under the democratic control of the people. Wage labor is unknown. All worked for the collective good and products are distributed according to the principle of â€Å"From all according to their ability to all according to their need. They however, call this a good society. Liberty and Equality are political concepts that strongly oppose each other, to be specific; between them there is what we call war of principles. For instance, Libertarians believes that Libertaria is the place where humankind should seek its future. This is because it is a society where people are truly free. They have the economic freedom to pursue their own ends in a market society. Indeed Libertaria is run exclusively on market lines. They do not believe in the good society as such, as market choices constantly fluctuate. Individuals must choose their own good life and the market is where they make their key decisions. On the other hand, Egalitarians believes that Egalitaria is the ideal place to which humankind should commit itself. It is the benchmark by which other societies can measure whether they are serving the aims which any good society should fulfill. Individuals believe that market decisions produce what people want. In Libertaria all make market choices and all receive from the market that which is their due. They are free from both the stifling collectivity of Communitarian and from the fear of having to make sacrifices, a fear which haunts Utilitarian. While Egalitaria would be the good society because it would be one in which all citizens are treated as being of equal worth. It would have basic political liberties, equality of opportunity and the rule of law, all of which are constitutionally guaranteed. It would also be dedicated to ensuring that these basic rights are of equal worth to their possessors (Lukes, 1993: 34). Libertaria has freedom of speech, of movement, of thought and of association. The rule of law prevails and there is no torture. They have a minimal state which oversees the system of free exchange, the courts, contractual disputes, the armed forces and the police. They realize that the state can build up its own interests which can conflict with those of private individuals. They therefore, keep its role to an absolute minimum. Freedom is their watchword and freedom to choose is prized above all else. On the other hand, the citizens of Egalitaria would be filled with a basic abhorrence of injustice and would strive to overcome any involuntary disadvantage whether such disadvantages are the result of religion, class, gender, ethnicity or whatever. Egalitaria would not tolerate the gross inequalities which characterize some of the communities within Communitarian. Rights in Egalitaria would be universal, not subject to the dictates of history, culture and tradition. Considering the above argument it seems like each ideology is giving no space to the enjoyment of the other ideology, or in simple terms we can say that it is hard for liberty and equality to go together, however, in practice these terms are mutually reinforcing each other. It is also very hard to find a society that is purely libertarian or that is purely Egalitarian, this means that in libertarian the possibility of finding some element of equality is there, same applies to the egalitarian, there are some sort of liberties though to the slightest degree. Therefore, there are some instances where liberty and equality move together with a common goal for instance the promotion of welfare of the people. It is also of great important that liberty and equality should work hand in hand, just because they act as watch dog to each other, for instance, the relationship that is between them is that like of three arms of government executive, parliamentary and judiciary. The problem with establishing the realm of liberty is that there are a bewildering number of grounds upon which freedom can be upheld. In much liberal political thought freedom is closely related to the notion of rights. However, as many political theorists employ a value-free or social-scientific understanding of such terms, they are quite prepared to accept that certain freedoms such as the freedom to murder should be constrained. In that sense, liberty or license distinction merely begs the question: which freedoms are we willing to approve, and which ones are we justified in curtailing? Alternative means of distinguishing between liberty and license was proposed by J.S. Mill. As libertarian who believed that individual freedom was the basis of moral self-development, Mill proposed that individuals should enjoy the greatest possible realm of liberty. However, Mill also recognized that unrestrained liberty could become oppressive, objectionable, morally corrupt and even tyrannical. In on Liberty (1859) 1972) Mill proposed a clear distinction between self-regarding actions and other-regarding actions, suggesting that each individual should exercise sovereign control over his or her own body or life. The only justification for constraining the individual, Mill argued, was in the event of ‘harm’ being done to others. Mill emphasizes that liberty becomes license not only when the rights of another are violated, or when harm is done to others, but when liberty is unequally shared out. In this sense equality is seen as standing block to the existence of license . Equality is a multi-dimensional concept. Diverse opinions are put forth in locating the exact relationship between these two concepts. Writers like De Tocqueville and Lord Acton hold the view that liberty and equality are opposed to each other as they are antagonistic. The desire to have equality destroys the possibility of having full liberty. Achievement of equality demands positive state action. Equality needs a positive state and liberty needs a Negative State. The Elite theory of Democracy is against the principle of equality. But on the other hand writers like Maitland, Rousseau, Barker, Laski and others, hold the view that they are complementary to each other, in the sense that they both play an important part in human life, fulfilling separate but complementary. Since the principles of liberty and equality are ideals capable of being mutually realizable, one answer to the continuing debate regarding each principles precedence would be the check of each principle on the excesses of the other. A just society might hold itself to the standard that, while difficult to reconcile, it is still most desirable to strive to strike a balance between upholding the belief in the inherent equality of all individuals, and the protecting the right to liberty for all its members. L. T. Hothouse opined that liberty without equality is a high-sounding phrase with squalid results. Liberty lies in equality. Liberty without equality degenerates into license and equality without liberty lapses into uniformity. To Prof. Barker Equality in all its forms, must always be subject and instrumental to the free development of capacity; but if it be pressed to the length of uniformity; if uniformity be made to thwart the free development of capacity, the subject becomes th e master, and the world is turned topsy-turvy. Liberty unites men but equality criticizes the social hierarchy and contributes towards the stability of the community ((1931) 1969) R.H. Tawney. Therefore liberty would be hollow without some measure of equality and equality would be meaningless without liberty. In this age of democracy where voting is a powerful weapon in the hands of the electorate economic equality is most essential condition because the economically powerful person will use his economic resources to gain political power. Political equality will be a mockery in the absence of economic equality. As per above argument it is hard to say that liberty and equality can be reconciled or not, in the sense that these terms are supported by different ideologies but which are reinforcing each other. So to say that they can be reconciled is forgetting that the terms are founded on different ideologies and on the same point to say that they cannot be reconciled is also forgetting that these terms are mutually reinforcing each other, hence making this question very contested one. Who determine that excessive use of liberties leads into license? What yard stick do they use to determine harm to others? And what is harm? It is good to know that what is harm to me cannot be harm to others and vice-versa. For instance, a society that is comprised of well-off and worse-off, come together and agree that they should be following the principle of â€Å"to each according to ability† can another man from a distance society come and say that the well-off in this particular society are harming the worse-off? This cannot be possible since what he calls it harm cannot be harm to others. In this case the worse-off choose to do what they can manage to, according to the level of their economic status, therefore, it is not harm to them, because they have decided to follow it based on their will and rationality. And again, who determine that excessive use of equality leads to uniformity? What is uniformity? What yard stick do they use to measure uniformity? In every time we talk of equality we must also note that there are some forms of inequality. What is equality to a particular society cannot be equality to the other, since society perceives things in different way all together. The issue of inequality will not come to an end since they were there before, they are here today and possibly they will be there tomorrow. What a just society would do is to come up with measures or initiative to overcome them. For instance legitimate inequality, affirmative action and positive discrimination where the society comprised of well-off and worse-off come to a consensus that they should accept the status of inequality and that they will be following a principle of â€Å"to each according to needy†, but the end result should be greater to the worse-off so that they should little by little cover the gap that is there between them. On the other hand this makes sure that talents, skills and ability are not hindered. Therefore, one cannot come and say, this is uniformity since what is uniformity to him cannot be uniformity to others. It is good to reflect on these questions and acknowledge that what is liberty or equality to the state cannot be liberty or equality to individuals or the collectives group and vice-versa. What was liberty or equality yesterday cannot be liberty or equality today. These things keeps on changing based on circumstances that people as a nation are going through. Therefore, liberty and equality are continuously changing depending on time and who uses them. Finally, based on argument above its very tricky and challenging to say that liberty and equality can be reconciled or not. However, beauty lies in the hands of the beholder; even though, there are no general examples that can be sighted to show that liberty and equality can be reconciled, but there is a room for reconciliation since they are complementary. Therefore, liberty and equality have a common end, the promotion of the value of the personality and the free development of its capacities. No one of these can be enjoyed in isolation. Bibliography Heywood, A. (2004). Introduction to Political Theory. In A. Heywood, Introduction to Political Theory (p. 252 and 284). china: Palgrave Mc Millan. J.C, J. (2004). Principle of modern politcal science. In J. Johari, Principle of modern politcal science (p. 200). New Dehli: Sterling. Hoffman J. and Graham P (2009) introduction to Political Theory. Professor Wizeman Chijere Chirwa, Dr. Fidelis Edge Kanyongolo and Dr. Edrinnie Kayambazithu. (2004). Building an informed Nation. In Building an informed Nation (p. 58). Lilongwe: Democracy Consolidation Programme.

Importance of Slavery to the Caribbean Essay -- History Slave Slavery

Importance of Slavery to the Caribbean The significance of the role played by slaves in the history of the Caribbean cannot be overemphasized. Nearly everything that defines the Caribbean today can be traced back to the advent of Africans to the sugar plantations several centuries ago. For this reason it is impossible to ignore the issue of slavery when studying the history of the Caribbean, as we are doing in this class. Through our numerous readings on the status of slaves and their treatment by the societies in which they lived, we have learned much about the sufferings and ordeals of these people. The following is an attempt to organize my own particular feelings and reactions, which I have previously posted on-line throughout the course of the semester, to the readings on this subject and to the reactions of other students as well. Imperialism, Plantation Slavery and the Slave Trade: 16th-18th Centuries It is interesting to note the ever-increasing reliance on slaves as the transition to sugar plantations not only occurred but also proceeded to become the main form of economic activity in the Caribbean in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. When the main crop out of the Caribbean was tobacco products in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the slave trade was non-existent. But when this crop failed, in addition to ginger, coffee and others, the inhabitants began to try sugar. This, of course, took off immediately, and the need for slaves became imperative. Thus began the true slave trade from Africa, which would forever alter the demography of the Americas. Also interesting to see are the two forms of non-exploitation society that thrived (contrary to European desire) in the Caribbean: the Maroons ... ...e, no present-day obstacle could stand in their way. The religion, skin color, music and culture of the Caribbean are all based on the difficult past of its people. Despite the rampant poverty that still plagues the region today, many of the people seem strangely content and remain optimistic. This alone speaks volumes about the strength of character these people project. It is a lesson for the rest of the world to learn from. Happiness is far more important than any material goods or trivial pursuits that we will ever pursue. It is certainly something that I will take away from this class, and I hope others do as well. Sources Beckles, Hilary and Shepherd, Verene. Caribbean Slave Society and Economy; The New Press (New York, 1991). Knight, Franklin W. The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism (2nd ed.); Oxford University Press (New York, 1990).

Sarbanes-Oxley’s Act: Article Summary

The article â€Å"Congress Should Repeal Sarbanes-Oxley Act† by William Niskannen discusses reasons and arguments why the law should be annulled. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOA) was passed, in 2002 and was considered a response to the collapse of Enron and other corporations with similar problems. Nevertheless, the author views this act as inadequate, harmful and unnecessary. Firstly, the act is viewed as unnecessary because â€Å"the stock exchanges had already implemented most of the SOA changes in the rules of corporate governance in their new listing standards†. p. 12) In other words, Exchange Commission is provided with full authority to enforce and to approve all accounting rules and standards, as well as to control financial statements of their firms. Furthermore, Department of Justice is able to prosecute executives for frauds associated with securities, stocks and bonds. The author claims that Public company Accounting Oversight Boards isn’t useful as it ha s no authorities to regulate remaining independent public auditors. Secondly, the law is viewed as harmful because it â€Å"substantially increases the risks of serving as a corporate officer or director†. (p. 13) The author means that SOA may serve more foreign and small firms, rather than stocks on American exchange. For example, the law suggests banning of loans to corporate officers and it leads to elimination of one of the most effective tools of executive compensation. In such a way, the act reduces incentives of directors and corporate executives to receive legal advice. Finally, the act is viewed as inadequate because it has proved to fail problems of accounting, taxation, corporate governance and auditing. In such a way, SOA increase the risk of bankruptcy. I think that the question whether SOA is effective or should be repealed is rather controversial. On the one hand, it cares for of foreign firms and small businesses, as well as fails to respond to auditing and taxing problems. On the other hand, it is designed as rescue program after Enron scandal. Its goal is to restore reputation and public trust in corporate sector in the USA.